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Ancient rock-cut caves of Mumbai
There are five clusters of ancient rock-cut caves in Mumbai!! Many of you would read this in disbelief. Probably majority of us know only about Elephanta Caves on an island near Mumbai. Yes there are two ancient Buddhist Caves – Kanheri Caves & Mahakali Caves. In addition there are two ancient Hindu Caves – Jogeshwari Caves & Elephanta Caves. There is yet another set of caves. These are Mandapeshwar Caves located in Borivili area of Mumbai. This was originally a Buddhist vihara . It was later converted into a Shiva temple Cave in the 8th century. My travelogue would cover the first four caves. I have not yet visited the Mandapeshwar Caves.
Mumbai’s history
We associate Mumbai’s history with either the fishermen community of Kolis & Aagris or with the colonial era. First the Portuguese in the 16th century and then under the British Empire from the 17th century. On 21 May 1662 Charles II of England was married to Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal. The British received Bombay as part of the dowry of Catherine. It was originally an archipelago of seven islands. They comprised of Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Worli, Colaba and Old Woman’s Island (also known as Little Colaba). By 1845, these seven islands were merged into one landmass by means of multiple land reclamation projects. The resulting island of Bombay later merged with it the nearby islands of Trombay and Salsette to form Greater Bombay.
The historical records of the Island of Bombay is available from the 3rd century BCE. It was under the control of different dynasties for different periods of time till it came under the control of Portuguese in 1534 CE. We shall not go into the details of these (saved for another blog on Mumbai city). The history associated with each cave would be covered in the description of each cave.
My blogs
This is my 46th blog and it is almost an year now since I started writing my blogs. I was least prepared then for staying put at home without a travel for a year. Even now the road ahead is not clear. Through my travelogues I have tried to take you to some of the well known and some lesser known heritage sites of India. This has allowed you to travel along with me on a beautiful journey of India without leaving the comfort of your homes. Hope to continue this endeavour to take you on many more interesting & informative journeys.
Elephanta Caves – Shiva’s glory in stone
My long standing desire to visit Elephanta Caves got fulfilled few years ago. As I along with my younger son visited the island that houses these caves.
On a Sunday morning, we took a fast local train from Andheri to Churchgate and from there by taxi to Gateway of India. An hour’s ferry ride from here took us to the Gharapuri island where these caves are located. On the way, you got to see many ships (majority of them being oil tankers). From the spot where the ferry dropped us on the island, it was a good 40 mins walk to the caves. A little over 500 metres of walk along the pier (or the option to take a toy train) took us to the base of the hill. This was followed with a climb of little over 100 steps. There are make-shift shops on both sides of the steps selling all sorts of crafts & artifacts.
Elephanta Caves – UNESCO World Heritage Site
According to UNESCO: The ‘City of Caves’, on an island contains a collection of rock art linked to the cult of Shiva. Here, Indian art finds one of its most perfect expressions, particularly the fifteen huge high reliefs in the main cave. They are also one of the most important collections for the cult of Shiva. The caves are the most magnificent achievement in the history of rock-architecture in western India. The Trimurti and other colossal sculptures with their aesthetic setting are examples of unique artistic creation.
UNESCO declared Elephanta as World Heritage Site in 1987. On a subsequent visit when UNESCO team had visited the caves, they were appalled to see the amount of garbage strewn all around with no proper guards & checks. Only when they threatened to de-list the site that the authorities woke up to the task of proper maintenance of the caves.
History of Elephanta caves
Much later the Portuguese gave it the name Elephanta as they discovered a stone elephant here. The damaged elephant now stands in the garden of Bhau Daji Lad Museum in Byculla, Mumbai. I have seen it there.
The history of Elephanta Caves is quite sketchy and no inscription or other details are available to pinpoint the correct period of its excavation. The choice of this island almost inaccessible in the deep sea, far away from the main land for the excavation of the caves may also appear mysterious. Scholars are quick to point out that this was preferred as the island was a place of absolute peace. This was an essential requisite for a place of religious refuge & spiritual retreat.
It is generally believed that the Rashtrakuta kings who ruled the region between 757 to 973 CE excavated the caves sometime in the 8th century . They are some scholars who believe that the caves were excavated earlier in the later half of 6th century during the reign of Kalachuri dynasty. The discovery of Buddhist caves on one of the hills of the island points to the fact that the Buddhist Monks inhabited the island even as early as 1st century BCE.
Damage caused to the Cave by Portuguese
When the caves came under the control of the Portuguese, they caused extensive damage to the sculptures. It is said that they used the cave for rifle shooting practice! Whatever misfortune the British rule brought to the public at large, it is to their credit that they did not damage any of India’s ancient monuments. On the contrary, the British were instrumental in setting up the Archaeological Survey of India which did a wonderful job in metuculosly recording & restoring the ancient monuments.
Description of the Caves
From outside Cave 1 looks plain with no inkling of what awaits the visitors inside. As one enters the cave from bright sunlight outside initially one is unable to see anything. Once the eyes are adjusted to the dark interior, the colossal sculptures of Shiva in his many aspects materialize! The first reaction is of awe & wonder and the first word that you utter is WOW!! Though disfigured by the Portuguese, they still remarkable in size & beauty. The cave measures 39 metres in length from the front entrance till the back wall. The main body of the cave is 27 metres square. Rows of six columns on each side support it. The cave has entry from three sides on the east, north & south.
For majority of us, the sculptures may look wonderful and we would understand & appreciate the surface meaning. But for the artists who created them & the Shaivate followers, they represented deeper journey into the spiritual world.
Sadashiva – trimurti image of Shiva
The highlight of the cave is it’s most famous landmark – the 5.45-metres tall masterpiece “Sadashiva”. The sculpture represents three aspects of Shiva: the Creator, the Preserver, and the Destroyer. The three faces are identified with Aghora or Bhairava (on right), Taptapurusha or Mahadeva (in middle), and Vamadeva or Uma (on left). They respectively represent the fierce masculine, the serene benign and soft feminine swarupas (aspects) of Shiva.
This trimurti image of Shiva is the focus of the cave temple. It has been strategically placed to receive enough light from the three entrances to make the devotee feel that Lord is emerging from eternal darkness.
Other Sculptures
In the panel depicting the marriage of Shiva and Parvati referred to as ‘Kalyanasundara’, one can see Parvati’s father Himalaya along with Brahma & Vishnu. Another panel depicts the descent of Ganga with Shiva receiving her in his locks to reduce her impact before she touches the earth. Yet another panel depicts Shiva & Parvati playing the game of dice on Mount Kailash. They are unperturbed by Ravana trying to lift Kailash from below! The panel depicting Shiva in his most alluring aspect of Ardhanareshwar (half man and half woman) mesmerizes you. The larger-than-life figure of dancing Shiva as Nataraja (synthesis of art, religion & science) amazes you.
The gigantic figures of dwarpalas (gatekeepers) at the entrance to the shrine housing a linga are forbidding yet graceful. Another sculpture worth mentioning is that of Shiva as Lakulisa. This image has distinct Buddhist features. It is quite likely that after the decline of the Buddhist patronage at Ajanta, many craftsmen came towards Mumbai in early 6th century in search of new opportunities. The Hindu kings employed them to carve images of Hindu gods in the caves first at Jogeshwari and later at Elephanta. That could be one explanation for the presence of Buddhist features in the early Hindu sculptures of those times.
Elephanta festival
The Maharashtra Tourism department organizes a festival of classical music & dance every year in the third week of February. The two days event that was earlier held at Elephanta Caves is now being held near the Gateway of India for the past few years.
We explored few other caves in the vicinity and after spending nearly two hours on the island made our way back to the jetty for the return ferry ride to Gateway of India. It is better to take the first ferry at 9 a.m. to the island because the crowds start increasing as the day progresses. The caves are open till 5.30 p.m but the last ferry for the island leaves at 2 p.m. Try visiting the caves on a weekday to avoid the boisterous crowds that descend on a holiday with the prime purpose of having a picnic.
Pictorial trip of Elephanta Caves
Kanheri Caves – glorious days of Buddhism in India
Imagine 103 sq.km. of pure wilderness & greenery in the heart of Mumbai city. Yes a place like this exists in the Borivali suburb of Mumbai named as Sanjay Gandhi National Park. It is home to 254 species of birds, 40 species of animals, 78 species of reptiles & amphibians. It also has a butterfly park with 150 species of butterflies. In addition the park boasts of over 1300 species of plants. On the weekends & holidays, thousands of Mumbaikars visit this park to fill their lungs with pure, fresh oxygen. The lakes, Tulsi & Vihar are within the confines of the forested area of the Park. There are number of nature treks & trails within the Park.
What is amazing is that more than 2000 years old Buddhist Caves known as Kanheri Caves are located in the Park. They are located at a distance of 7 kms from the Borivali entrance on the Western Express Highway. Private cars/cabs are allowed up to the foothills of a hill where these caves are located. Taxis, autorickshaws & other modes of transport are not allowed. Cycles are available on hire at the entrance but their limited numbers make it difficult to get one. The Park bus service from the entrance till the caves is irregular. Many youngsters & nature enthusiasts trek up to the caves which is definitely an exhilarating option.
History of Kanheri Caves
More than 100 odd caves are carved from basalt rock and date from the 2nd century BCE to the 10th century CE. Kanheri is derived from Sanskrit word Krishnagiri, which literally means black mountain. This makes it one of the largest cave complexes of India and definitely among the longest inhabited. Their location deep inside the forest in peaceful environs was ideal for meditation and also kept them safe from invaders.
The history of Kanheri monastery begins sometime in the 2nd century BCE when it was called Kanhasela. The plain stupa in Cave 2 is the oldest structure in this complex. But the first phase of excavation & occupation comprising of 75 caves are dated between 1st century CE and the beginning of 4th century CE. It was under the patronage of Satavahana kings & their vassals. The second phase of activity took place in the 5th & 6th century CE when older caves were modified and some new excavations took place. They were sponsored by the Traikutakas who were controlling the Konkan region then. A copper plate inscription dated to around 494 CE found near Cave 3 refers to these rulers. A third & final phase occurred from 7th century onward during the reign of Hindu Rashtrakutas & Shilaharas.
Patronage by merchants
Sopara and other ports near Mumbai were bustling ports in ancient times. There was an active trade with far off lands such as Egypt & Mesopatamia. This brought many merchants to the port and they found Kanheri as a safe haven for their temporary stay. Thus the Buddhist monasteries & communities at Kanheri received support & donation from the wealthy merchants too.
Damage to the cave by Portuguese
It is believed that even after the decline of Buddhism in India from the 10th century onward, a small band of Buddhist monks continued to reside in these caves. But the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century brought in the bad times. These new conquerors forcefully converted the remaining Buddhists to Christianity. They inflicted considerable damage to the sculptures in the caves. In 1535, a Franciscan priest even attempted to convert the chaitya hall into a chapel!
Description of the Caves
Cave 1 & 2
The two storeyed Cave 1 at the entrance to the monastery is one of the most imposing caves at Kanheri. But it is one of the later caves from the 6th/7th century CE. Only the verandah with columns and the entrance with doorway and windows at both the levels were completed. Rest of the cave though cut deep in the rock was left unfinished. Cave 2 comprises of the ancient polished stupa dating to 2nd century BCE. The carving on rear walls depicting preaching Buddha and Bodhisattvas holding lotuses was carried out much later. There is a large vihara with cells adjacent to this cave. An inscription dating 2nd century CE records ‘meritorious gifts’ by Nakanaka of Nasik and goldsmith Samidita of Kalyan as donors.
Cave 3
Cave 3 is undoubtedly the largest & most impressive cave at Kanheri. An open courtyard with low wall carved with ornamental railing lies in front of the cave. Nine metres tall columns carved from the adjoining rock stand on both side of the courtyard. The chaitya hall in its design reminds us of the chaitya hall already described in my earlier blog on Karla Caves. Large panels carved with pairs of mithunas occupy the wall surfaces on either side of the three doorways to the chaitya. The men are depicted with broad chests and the women with heavy breasts. Their garments have pleated sashes and they wear necklaces & ear adornments. They sport elaborate hairdo & headdresses. The modern day fashion could do well to take a leaf out of the book from this panel!
The highlight of cave 3 are the two colossal Buddha figures 6.5 metres high in standing pose. They are sculpted on either of the side walls of the verandah and were probably added during 5th/6th century. Buddha is depicted with serene expression in varad-mudra – the gesture of bestowing boons. This is a perfect example of the Buddhist art perfected in Deccan during the reign of Vakata dynasty.
Cave 11
A stepped path along a seasonal rivulet takes the visitor to the caves on the higher levels. Cave 11 is a Darbar (Assembly) Hall. It has a long verandah with eight octagonal columns. The hall inside measures 22 metres in width and 10 metres in depth. There are two parallel plinths running in the middle of the hall. They probably served as benches for the monks to sit and study and recite sacred texts. An inscription recording donation for purchase of books confirms that this cave was used for study.
Cave 41
Cave 41 is a vihara. It has the usual image of Buddha with standing Bodhisattvas carved on the rear wall. There is a unique figure in this cave which is depicted with eleven heads. Such a figure has not been found in any other Buddhist cave in India and remains an enigma.
Cave 67
Next interesting cave is Cave 67. It is a very large and most artistically created vihara. Buddha is depicted seated on lotus flowers with stalks that have crouching nagas. The large Buddha figure is surrounded by smaller Buddha figures. The right end wall of verandah portrays Avlokiteshvara flanked by two female attendants.
Cave 90
The caves are not numbered serially and are well spread out so either one should carry a map or need to make some effort to search a particular numbered cave. Cave 90 is one such a cave that needs a bit of a searching. This is one of the best preserved caves and has beautifully sculpted compositions.
I have highlighted only the major caves among the 100 odd caves at the site. The visitor is sapped of of energy by the time he is able to cover all the caves. Due to the humid climate of Mumbai it is advisable to always carry a water bottle while exploring these caves. Those who are students of architecture or archaeology can easily spend an entire day at this site. I have visited the caves thrice but never saw all the caves on a single visit. Unfortunately, I have lost photos taken during one of the visits.
Architectural & engineering wonders of Kanheri
Caves like Kanheri stand as testimony to the incredulous skills of architecture & engineering developed by the masons, sculptors and architects of ancient times. Credit is also due to the patrons of these caves who were the inspiration behind these splendid creations. One of the most amazing features of Kanheri Caves is the development of water management system 2000 years ago. It ensured that the occupant of the caves had interrupted water resource available to the. There are cisterns or water tanks at different levels fed through a pipe line. This used to provide water for various purposes to different categories of people at the same time.
Pictorial trip of Kanheri Caves
Kanheri (Ancient rock-cut caves of Munbai)
Mahakali Caves – an unknown treasure
Mahakali Caves Road is an important artillery road in Andheri East that connects Andheri Kurla Road with Jogeshwari Vikhroli Link Road. Hundreds of offices and industrial units are located on this busy, congested road. Thousands of Mumbaikars come here daily to their respective work places. I bet, almost all of them would be unaware of the fact that the oldest Buddhist Cave complex of Maharashtra is located on a hillock almost at the fag end of this road. Yes, I am referring to the Mahakali Caves also known as Kondivite Caves. Mahakali is a misnomer as the Hindu goddess has no connection with the caves. The caves acquired this name due to the presence of a Mahakali temple in the vicinity.
I used to stay in a gated housing complex on the Jogeshwari Vikhroli Link Road in Mumbai for several years. Both Mahakali Caves & Jogeshwari Caves were at walking distances from my house. This made it so convenient for me to visit these caves several times.
Description of the caves
Mahakali caves were excavated from a single basalt rock between 2nd century BCE and 6th century CE. Out of these 19 rock-cut monuments, Cave 9 is the earliest excavated in 2nd century BCE. The other caves appear to have been excavated in the 5th-6th centuries. This chaitya cave has a unique plan not seen in any other later caves. At the end of a hall is a semi-circular shrine containing a monolithic stupa inside. Windows with simple square perforations flank both sides of the doorway to this shrine. The shrine gives the appearance of a circular thatched hut! On the right wall in the hall figures of Buddha with Bodhisattvas attending him. They were later additions during the 5th-6th centuries.
The other caves in the complex are devoid of carvings – one of them looks like a chaitya while the others were all viharas or study halls. There are cisterns to store water.
About 15 years ago the caves were in a state of neglect. Unsocial elements from nearby slums would gather here to play cards and gamble. In the evenings they became a den for drinking. But then ASI took action to remove all encroachments and constructed a wall with gate to safeguard the caves. The caves are now restored. Lush green lawns in front of the caves add to the beauty of the place.
Pictorial trip of Mahakali Caves
Jogeshwari Caves – a case of apathy for our heritage
Another piece of ancient architectural marvel just off the Jogeshwari Vikhroli Link Road lies forgotten & neglected for centuries. It is hardly a km away from the Western Express Highway. Encroached by the slums of Pratapnagar with water seepage and later seepage of sewage water the caves have suffered extensive damage almost beyond redemption. Mumbai is perhaps the only city in the world to have ancient cave structures within its municipal limits. Jogeshwari Caves is perhaps the worst case example where both the concerned authorities & public at large have not acted responsibily. They failed to save Jogeshwari caves from encroachment in a manner that ensures their preservation & upkeep.
History of Jogeshwari Caves
Walter M. Spink was a well known American art historian. He is best known for his extensive study of Buddhist art in India. He had visited Jogeshwari Caves in 1960. According to him they are first Hindu caves of India and estimates that they were built between 520 to 550 CE. These were the first Shaivite rock-cut temples to be built in the region and they were also a precursor to the famous Elephanta caves. Spink believes that “In terms of Hindu cave temples, it’s the father or the grandfather of them all,” The Elephanta Cave & Dhumar lena (Hindu Cave at Ellora) owe a debt to Jogeshwari.
According to archaeologist and historian Dr Arind P Jamkhedkar, these caves were ‘The prototype where the artists formulated the ideas of expression, that got perfected at Elephanta’.
Though exact historical records are not there but from the evidence available, Jogeshwari caves are assigned to the Kalachuri Era in the 6th century CE.
What the experts opine
Samir V Patel, a journalist, photographer & editor wrote an article in 2007 when he was the Deputy Editor of the Journal ‘Archaeology’. This highlighted the importance of Jogeshwari Caves and the state of its neglect. This succeeded in bringing these caves into focus. ASI started the process of cleaning the caves that were encroached upon from all sides. Samir Patel writes “Compared with Elephanta, Jogeshwari has a kind of natural, raw power. It is a place where you can see ideas being tried and cosmology being defined, where you can almost hear the clinking of Kalacuri chisels. If we can just reconstruct it with our eyes to some degree, and our minds too, it stands right up as a fantastic achievement.”
Unfortunately, the progress has been sporadic and too little. Despite court intervention, ASI has not been able to move the occupants of the illegal houses built right on the edge of the cave. Finding alternate accommodation is turning out to be the biggest hurdle as the property price in that area is very high. In view of other priorities, Jogeshwari has taken a back seat. Vidya Dehejia, a historian of Indian and South Asian art at Columbia University writes It’s almost inevitable in a country in which resources are that limited and there are so many other crying priorities. But we’re probably going to regret at some stage neglecting these sites.”
Description of the cave
The shrine/cave is below the ground level. It is approached via a flight of steps from the east and west which are deeply cut into the rock. Gigantic dwarpalas (guardian figures) flank the east doorway to the mandapa. The lintel above has figure of Shiva as Nataraja. Another scene depicts Parvati playing dice with Shiva. The approach to the cave is now from the entrance on the west. But If we enter the cave from the earlier main entrance on the west, we would first encounter the shrine of Ganesha. There is a large statue of Ganesha sculpted from the rock but the 1,500-year-old statue has been painted fluorescent orange.
The main shrine in the Cave is of Goddess Jogeshwari (Yogeshwari). Many communities consider it as Kul devi (patron deity). There are other individual shrines for Shiva, Hanuman & Dattatreya. Some of them seem to be later additions. All these shrines are live shrines and devotees come & worship them. On Shivaratri and other festival days lot of people throng to the caves.
On entering the cave you come into a very large hall with a central shrine. There are sculptures on the walls but it is so dark inside that you are hardly able to make out the sculptures. There is an exit on the right that leads into a long corridor with columns. On many a occasions, I have found a priest performing an elaborate puja for the devotees. There is a window in the wall to allow light to filter into the cave.
Pictorial tour of Jogeshwari Caves
Importance of these caves
These ancient Caves are our important linkages with the past. It tells us so much about our history, religions, culture, beliefs, practices, architecture & art. We don’t have to dwell in the past but knowing the history, achievements, successes, failures etc are very important for the new generations. It helps the society & nations to evolve better. We should be making every effort not only to visit them, appreciate them but also to preserve them for the future generations.
These caves are easily accessible if you are in Mumbai. You need a separate day to visit Elephanta Caves but you can cover all the other three caves in a single day.
References:
(1) Speaking Stones- World Heritage Sites in India (Good Earth Publication) (2) 100 Wonders of India by Roli Books (3) Buddhist Rock-cut Monasteries of the Western Ghats by George Michell & Gethin Rees (4) The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India Volume I by George Michell (5) Wikipedia (6) Website of Sanjay Gandhi National Park (7) Article ‘The Slum and the Sacred Cave’ by Samir V Patel
Regular updates
I have clicked all the pics.
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Disclaimer:
I have made sincere efforts to provide you the correct information about all the places that have been culled out from various sources. I do not take any responsibility for any errors that might have crept in the narration. There is no intention to hurt the faith or religious sentiments of any person or community.
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