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Wonders of Rock-cut architecture of India
The Buddhist, Hindu & Jain Caves in India form an important part of Indian rock-cut architecture. They are among the most prolific examples of rock-cut architecture around the world. There are more than 1,500 known rock cut structures in India. Among these the Buddhist Caves are the oldest. Buddhists excavated about 1000 caves (mainly between 200 BCE and 600 CE), Hindus about 300 (from 600 CE to 1200 CE), and Jains about 200 (mainly from 800 CE to 1200 CE). Ellora Caves are the finest examples of all three – Buddhists, Hindus & Jain Caves existing together. Many of these structures contain works of art of global importance. Exquisite stone carvings adorn many of the later caves.
These ancient heritage caves represent significant achievements of structural engineering and craftsmanship. Ajanta, Ellora & Elephanta Caves are famous world over as they are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Millions of domestic & international travellers have visited them.
My visit to Buddhist caves of Maharashtra
My travelogue today doesn’t take you to the above well-known Caves. But we visit three other less familiar Buddhist Caves dating back to 2nd Century BCE up to 6th Century CE. They are Pandav Leni (Caves) at Nasik and Karla Caves & Bhaja Caves at Lonavala. Though they are not as famous as their more illustrious brethren mentioned above. Still these Buddhist monuments carved out of rock are also considered among the finest surviving examples of Indian Art.
From ancient times, Indians have considered caves as places of sanctity. The caves provided perfectly peaceful, isolated environs for meditation, studies & ascetic life. I have always found these Caves as source of inspiration and awe. More than the aesthetic appeal of the sculptures, it is the architectural skill that left me wonder-struck. One is left marveling at the fact that human hands carved them with such precision & painstaking skill with primitive implements. Who were these craftsmen, how & where did they acquire the skill, what implements did they use? And above all, how could they laboriously work in those dark caves for months together with negligible natural light. I have not been able to find a satisfactory answer to these questions.
History of the Rock-cut Caves of India
The first Buddhist rock-cut caves came up in Bihar during the reign of Ashoka. Pushyamitra Sunga was a general in the Mauryan empire in the 2nd Century BCE. He rebelled and declared himself the emperor of Magadh after assassinating the last Mauryan Emperor Brihadratha Maurya. He established the Sunga dynasty which ruled over Magadh for over 100 years. According to Buddhist texts, Pushyamitra was a staunch believer in Hinduism and he started persecuting the Buddhists. Buddhist monks fled from Bihar and took refuge in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra & Gujarat. Chalukya kings & other dynasties were tolerant towards Buddhists and gave them shelter and patronage. It is from the 2nd Century BCE onwards that we see the excavation of many rock-cut caves in these states.
Caves of Maharashtra
When the Buddhist monks came to Maharashtra, they preferred caves for use as their places of worship and for their abode. The location & topography of Western Ghats with flat-topped basalt mountains and cliffs were ideal for creating the caves. They suited their ideals of asceticism & monastic life. The Buddhist rock-cut architecture reached its zenith in western Maharashtra.
Sea trade to the Roman empire was flourishing those days from the western coast of India. Rich merchants/ traders used to travel across Maharashtra towards the coast on Aurangabad-Nasik route or Aurangabad-Pune Road. In addition to the kings, they also started giving grants/ donations to the Buddhist monks. This is one reason why we see proliferation of these caves in the regions around Aurangabad, Pune, Nasik & Mumbai. The merchants/ traders also used the caves for rest/stay during their journeys. Despite being so ancient they are relatively in very good state of preservation. After the decline of Buddhism, many of these caves remained hidden in the mountains surrounded by forests for centuries together. This saved them from the invaders. British officers discovered many of these long forgotten caves.
Pandav Caves / Pandav Leni / Trirashmi Caves of Nasik
What do I write about a place which happens to be my favourite haunt? I have visited Pandav Leni (Leni is a Marathi word for rock-cut caves) several times. The caves continue to fascinate me. The visits were in different seasons and at different times of the day. I have always found it to be a tranquil, peaceful place (prefer to go on a weekday to avoid the boisterous weekend crowds). On every visit, I discover a new facet of the place.
Origin of the name of the Caves
The caves have nothing to do with the Pandavs of Mahabharata. But then how did the name Pandu leni or Pandav leni become popular? There is an interesting hypothesis for this. In those times the popular language was Pali. In Pali language ‘Pundru’ meant “yellow ochre colour”. The locals started calling it Pundru because the Buddhist monks wore “the chivara or the yellow robes”. Later on, the word Pundru changed to Pandu. Much later people started calling it Pandav Caves which is a misnomer. Scholars & historians also refer to the caves as Trirashmi Caves. Trirashmi means ‘rays of sunlight’. As the rays of the rising sun could be seen emerging from behind the cliff, it got this name. This name though is not popular.
A flight of few hundred steps take you to the caves. The route is through thick plantation so even in summer the visitor doesn’t feel the intensity of the sun. The more adventurous avoid the paved steps but take the shorter & difficult mountain route. The Caves are under ASI and open at 9 a.m. but many people come here early morning for their daily dose of climbing exercise. Many people even in Nasik are not aware of the historical significance of these caves, some of which are more than 2100 years old. As the caves face eastwards, the best time to visit them is in the morning to get a better view of the sculptures & carvings.
Pictorial tour of the caves
Let us first take a pictorial tour of these caves before I describe their history & architecture.
History of Pandav Caves
Pandav Caves are a group of 24 caves on a stretch of 300 metres on a hill, very close to Nashik Mumbai Expressway. They date between the 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE. Though, addition of sculptures continued up to about the 6th century. The various inscriptions confirm that in that period 3 dynasties were dominant in Nasik. They were the Satvahanas, the Kshatrapas and the Abhiras. Nasik on the banks of river Godavari was on the boundary of Satavahana and Kshatrapa regions. Therefore, there was always a conflict between Satavahanas and the Kshatrapas over supremacy. However, all the 3 dynasties fully supported Buddhism. The inscriptions also confirm that apart from the kings, local merchants, landlords too supported and donated huge sums for the development of these caves.
The interpretation of the inscriptions
The inscriptions in the caves at Nasik has helped archaeologists & historians to reconstruct contemporary political events. Inscriptions in Caves 3 & 10 record support for the monastery by Nahapana, the Kshatrapa king and his adversary Gautamiputra Satakarni, the Satavahana king. In early 2nd century CE Gautamiputra defeated Nahapana in two battles fought near Goverdhan (near Gangapur village in Nasik) and subsequently at Karli. This established control of Satvahanas over the strategic routes through Western Ghats. Gautamiputra then visited Nasik Caves & Karla Caves and gave liberal donations and became patron of Buddhist Sangha. The Satavahana kings continued to give liberal donations and grants to cover the cost of the excavations, the religious ceremonies and everyday lives of the monks. There is an inscription in Cave 17 that mentions a Yavana as a sponsor.
The caves were in close proximity to one another with monks’ groups living in separate caves but making everyday contact. In cave 19 there is an inscription that dates its excavation to 2nd-1st century BCE. This was during the reign of one of the earliest known Satavahana Monarchs. Addition of sculptures of preaching Buddha seated in the company of attendants holding fly-whisks in the first and last caves at the site are of 5th-6th century CE. This chronology makes us believe that expansion continued for more than six centuries. But there is no evidence of any activity during the 3rd-4th centuries.
Cave 3
Cave 3 is one of the largest and most elaborate early viharas of Pandav Caves. The outer verandah has six octagonal columns with cushion shaped capitals. The columns support brackets which are in the shape of seated elephants, bulls and other animals with human riders. There are figures of yakshas with grimacing faces on both sides of the entrance which resembles a wooden torana. The hall inside is almost square in shape and measures 12 by 14 metres. It has eighteen small cells with rock-cut beds for the monks. There is a beautiful relief stupa in a panel in the middle of the rear wall. There is an inverted abacus on top of it and courtly maidens are on both the sides. One of the maidens is in gesture of veneration while the other holds a fly-whisk under a drmachakra.
This cave whose excavation was started with liberal donation by the Satavahana King Gautamiputra Satakarni is called Devi-Lena (Queen’s Cave) in the name of his mother Gautami Balasri. The cave got completed during the reign of Satakarni’s son Pulumavi II.
Cave 10
Cave 10 is also worth mentioning. This is a well-preserved vihara measuring 11 by 14 metres with sixteen cells. There are six inscriptions in this cave. The panel in the middle of the rear wall has the carving of a guardian figure with a club. The inscriptions mention the names of Kshatrapa king Nahapana and his son-in-law Ushavadata.
Cave 18
Cave 18 has a richly adorned well-preserved facade. It dates back to 2nd-1st century BCE. Chaitya arch in relief has the typical design and it surmounts the central doorway to the hall. On the left of the doorway there is a male guardian holding a flower. The figure on the right has withered over time. The chaitya arch above the entrance has petals carved and is a beautiful elaborate composition. The hall is 12 metres deep and 7 metres wide with ten slender octagonal columns flanking a monolithic stupa.
Cave 17
Cave 17 is a vihara – one has to climb few steps to reach it. This cave has four columns in the open verandah. An inscription says that Indragnimitra gave donation. He identifies himself as a yavana from Damtamiti in the eastern kingdom of Afghanistan. Despite the donation, the cave remained incomplete.
Caves 20, 23, 24
The next important cave is 20 which was a vihara belonging to early Satavahana period. It was embellished during 5th-6th centuries with additions of images of Buddha, tall Bodhisattvas and attendant females. The beautiful sculptures with tranquil expressions in Caves 20, 23 & 24 make them rank among the finest achievements in Deccan Buddhist art.
I hope after reading my description of these caves you would look at these Caves in Nasik with newer & greater interest!
Bhaja Caves
Bhaja Caves are a group of 22 Buddhist Caves that date back to 2nd Century BCE. If you are going from Mumbai to Pune then on NH4 (old highway) beyond Lonavala, there is a right turn (after MTDC resort). After the turn you would have to cross a railway line and go for 5 kms. You would reach the village of Bhaja at the base of a hill. From here a climb of 400 feet through steps would take you to the caves. There is a ticket counter on the way up. The caves face west so the best time to visit them is the late afternoon when the caves are bathed in sunlight. During monsoon natural waterfalls enhance the beauty of the place. The caves belong to the Hinayana Buddhism sect. I have visited these caves twice and enjoyed both the visits.
Pictorial tour of Bhaja Caves
Let us take a pictorial tour of the Bhaja Caves before I give a detailed description.
Description of Bhaja Caves
Chaityagraha
As you enter the Caves complex, you come face to face with a Cave which is the most notable cave among the Bhaja monuments. The chaityagriha — with an open, horseshoe-arched entrance arrests your attention. This chaityagraha is the most prominent aspect of the Caves. It is a good example of the early development of this form from wooden architecture, with a vaulted horseshoe ceiling.
The arched vault of the hall is almost 10 metres high and its curved openings are lined with imitation timber ribs. The Chaitya is more than 8 metres wide and 17 metres deep. The columns divide the interior into a nave and side aisles. There are 27 columns in all arranged in two symmetrical rows that meet in a semi-circle behind the stupa. They have octagonal shafts but they are devoid of bases, capitals and brackets. In the vaulted roof over the central aisle, notches attach the timber ribs and continue in radial fashion above the stupa. This gives the impression that the entire structure is built in wood. The stupa has a diameter of 3 metres and has a plain drum & dome.
A cluster of stupas
The other important cave is an open structure that has a cluster of fourteen monolithic stupas. The stupas are relics of resident monks, who lived and died at Bhaja. They display an inscription with the names of three monks, Ampinika, Dhammagiri and Sanghdina. The stupas have been carved very elaborately and two of them have a relic box on their upper side.
Vihara with carvings
Another cave that impresses the visitor is a Vihara. I am not giving the Cave number as different sources have ascribed different numbers to these caves. From the outside the cave looks not impressive as six slender columns cover the facade (they seem to be a later addition to support the cave). The interior of the verandah has a roof with a half-curved vault furnished with imitation wooden ribs & rafters. The rear wall of the verandah has two doorways and a single perforated window that leads into a vihara with cells for monks. This was closed for entry. Flanking the doors of the vihara are two guardian figures dressed in elaborate military costume. One of them is brandishing a long spear while the other a double-curved bow.
Relief panels in the vihara
The relief panels carved on either side of the doorway to the vihara are particularly impressive. The left panel depicts a warrior king holding the reigns of a chariot dawn by four horses. He is accompanied by a female (queen) wearing an elaborate headdress and an attendant holding a fly-whisk. It appears as if the chariot is flying through the sky and it suppresses a gigantic demon below it. The right panel depicts another warrior accompanied by an attendant who is seen clutching three feathery staffs. Both are mounted on a huge, richly caparisoned elephant who is holding an uprooted tree with its trunk. Tiny figures below them are watching in astonishment. No one has been able to correctly interpret these panels and till date they remain a great puzzle of the Indian art.
Interpretation of the relief panels – a puzzle not solved
Some scholars suggest that they represent Surya, the resplendent sun-god riding his aerial chariot and Indra, the god of the heavens atop his elephant Airavat. But others refute this as there is no explanation for the presence of Hindu gods in a Buddhist vihara. Other scholars suggest that these reliefs illustrate yet unidentified Buddhist narratives from the Jatakas. There is also a belief that it is the illustration of the story of Mandhata, a legendary king. But let these various interpretations not divert our attention from recognising the regal spirit of these beautiful compositions. I was particularly impressed by the elaborate hairdos & headdresses, the ear ornaments & other jewellery and garlands. These exquisitely carved reliefs can be considered as 2200 years old masterpieces.
There are two forts in the vicinity of Bhaja Caves – Visapur Fort and Lohagad Fort. I have visited Lohagad fort. May be I shall cover it in one of my travelogues.
Karla Caves
We now travel to another beautiful complex of Buddhist rock-cut caves at Karli, some 10 kms from Lonavala and 7 kms from the Bhaja Caves. On NH4 while travelling from Mumbai to Pune, after Lonavala you have to take a left turn and drive for less than 2 kms to reach the hill housing Karla Caves. Karla or Karli or Karle Caves date back from 2nd century BCE to 5th Century CE. The car goes up the hill half the distance from where you have to take a flight of 200 steep steps to reach the Caves. A normal person can cover it in 25 to 30 mins. There is an old but much later date (18th century) famous Hindu temple of Ekvira devi near the Caves. It is a belief that she is local incarnation of Renuka devi and has lot of following so the place is always crowded.
Pictorial tour of Karla Caves
Let us take a pictorial tour before I describe the caves in detail.
After buying the admission ticket you enter the Cave complex and are welcomed on to a broad open terrace. From here you get to see the caves at a glance while on the other side you get birds eye view of the beautiful Indrayani valley.
History & description of Karla Caves
The Karla caves complex is one of the older and smaller of the many rock-cut Buddhist sites in Maharashtra. There are 15 caves in total but except for Cave 8 there is not much to rave about the other caves. Cave 8 in itself is a masterpiece and makes up for the others. It has the “Grand Chaitya” which is the largest and most completely preserved Chaitya hall of the period. In addition the cave has unusual quantities of fine sculpture and much of it is on a large scale. Undoubtedly, the sheer majestic size dwarfs you as you stand mesmerized gaping at the unbelievable craftsmanship of more than two millenniums ago! Carbon testing of the timber ribs set into the vaulted roof of the chaitya has yielded the chronological range from 4th to 1st century BCE!
Description of the Cave
The Ekvira temple which stands before the facade of the cave obstructs its majestic view.
A pair of identical monolithic columns 14 metres tall cut out of the cliff stood before the cave. Today only one survives as the temple has been built over the stump of one of the columns. The surviving column has a sixteen sided shaft with a quartet of lion torsos on the top. The column looks similar to the Ashokan pillar. You first enter the verandah of the cave, the rear wall of which has three entrances leading into the Chaitya. The verandah is 6 metres deep and side walls rise almost 20 metres to the ceiling.
The elaborate sculptures & exquisite panels
On either side of the doorways are panels depicting Mithuna couples. Males with fleshy well built torsos and limbs and females with heavy buxoms & hips are carved in deep relief. These male-female pairs are depicted with smiling expressions in a variety of affectionate poses. They stand with interlinked arms, one arm around the shoulder and gaze fondly towards each other. Both male & female figures are bare bodied and ornate belts with jewelled plaques secure their lower garments. They wear heavy anklets, bracelets, earrings and occasionally a necklace. These masterpieces of early Indian Buddhist art contrast with the more conventional Buddha figures sculpted at a later date on the intermediate panels. Preaching Buddha on a lotus throne and Avalokiteshvara holding a lotus are carved on these panels.
At the base of the walls on either side, three imposing elephant torsos are carved. They look remarkably true to life with trunks & flapping ears. There are panels with small Buddha statues over the elephants. The architectural compositions above have superimposed tiers of balconies and rows of horse-shoe shaped windows.
Chaitya hall
Once you enter the chaitya hall, you stand gaping in wonder at the magnificent dimensions and the near perfect state of preservation. The semi-circular shaped massive hall extends almost 38 metres deep and 14 metres wide. It is divided into nave & aisles by two rows of fourteen columns which have pot bases, fluted, bell-shaped capitals and inverted-pyramidal abacuses. Each bracket comprises a pair of kneeling elephants with male & female riders. Within the side aisles, horses replace the elephants. The sculpted columns look like a continuous frieze directing the eye to the great stupa which serves as main focus of the interior.
The stupa has an imposing dome with a diameter of almost five metres and it is elevated on two superimposed drums. Their is a wooden chhatra over the harmika.
I visited some other caves in the cluster but a majority of them were simple viharas devoid of any major sculpture or carvings.
In conclusion:
I wish more people start appreciating these man-made wonders of ancient India. They are truly amazing because they are specimen of perfect design with extraordinary precision. The amazement gets bigger when we realize that the craftsmen had only the rudimentary tools such as hammers, axes & chisels. There are two more clusters of Buddhist Caves near Lonavala – Bedse Caves & Kondana Caves. I am yet to visit them. I have visited Kanheri Caves at Mumbai. Hope to write about it some other time.
Reference: I have referred extensively to the book ‘Buddhist Rock-cut Monasteries of the Western Ghats’ by George Mitchell and Gethin Rees. I have also referred to the book ‘The history and Inscriptions of The Satavahanas and The Western Kshatrapas’ by Dr. V. V. Mirashi.
Regular updates
I have clicked all the pics (except my own images).
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Disclaimer:
I have made sincere efforts to provide you the correct information about all the places that have been culled out from various sources. I do not take any responsibility for any errors that might have crept in the narration. There is no intention to hurt the faith or religious sentiments of any person or community.
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